The Old English names for the months give you some idea of what concerned people 1,500 years ago. They describe what happened at different times of the year. Remember, these relate to life in the northern hemisphere.

JANUARY

In the Roman calendar, Januarius mensis, the month of Janus the god of gates who looked both backwards and forwards, signifying the gate into the new year. Because this month included the festival of Janus, it later became the first month of the year.

The Old English names for this month were

ætera Geola after Yule, a name used by Christians. Yule was a pagan festival.

Formamonath first-month

Wulfmonath wolf-month, because that’s when they roamed in search of food!

FEBRUARY

In the Roman calendar, Februarius mensis, the month of februa, the feast of purification. Februus was the Etruscan god of riches, represented in Roman mythology by Dis Pater, ‘rich father’.

The Old English name for this month was solmonath, mud-month, because the rain made the soil and the fields difficult for people to work in..

MARCH

In the Roman calendar, Martius mensis, month of Mars, the god of war. In the earlier Roman calendar, it was the first of ten months in the year. (The twelve month year was devised later.)

In Old English, it was Hrethmonath, fierce-month, because it was a time of blustery winds.

APRIL

In the Roman calendar, Aprilis. It was the second month in the older Roman calendar, which had only ten months. Its name might have come from Latin aperire, to open, referring to the Spring opening of buds and blossoms. It might also be a dedication to the Greek goddess of love, Aphrodite (who was called Venus in Roman mythology).

Earlier versions in English, from about the 13th century, included Aperill, Averil and the French Avril.

In Old English, it was eastermonath Easter-month. Eostre was the Germanic goddess of fruits and fertility whose name was borrowed by the Christian Church for the festival of Easter.

MAY

In the Roman calendar, Maius, related to the Greek goddess Maia, the mother of Hermes (who was called Mercury in Roman mythology).

An Old English name for this month was thrimilce, three-milk, because cows were very productive at this time and could be milked three times a day.

JUNE

In the Roman calendar, Junius, the name of some Roman generals, or perhaps Juno, the queen of the gods.

An Old English name for the month was seremonath, dry-month — different from the mud-month of February!

JULY

In the Roman calendar, Julius (the famous Julius Caesar) in whose honour it was named in 44BC. In the older Roman calendar, this was the 5th month, Quintilis.

In Old English, we find the picturesque name mædmonath, meadow-month, the time when cattle could feed in the meadows.

AUGUST

In the Roman calendar, named after the emperor Augustus in 8BC. In the older Roman calendar, the month was originally Sextilis, the 7th month.

In the Old English calendar, it was Weodmonath, weed-month. Weod meant grass and herbs, not just weeds as we know them. Harvesting the fruits of flourishing plants came in the following month.

SEPTEMBER

The name in the Roman calendar is from Latin septem, seven. This was the 7th month of the earlier Roman calendar.

In Old English, hæerfestmonath, harvest-month, and later haligmonath, holy-month, in the Christian calendar. This was because Mary, the mother of Jesus, was believed to have been born on September 8th.

OCTOBER

The name in the Roman calendar is from Latin octo, eight. It was the 8th month in the older Roman calendar.

In Old English, it was winmonath, wine-month, the time when grapes were gathered for wine-making.

NOVEMBER

In the Roman calender, the name came from Latin novem, nine. It was the 9th month of the earlier Roman calendar.

An Old English name was Blotmonath, blood-month, denoting the period of butchering animals and salting their meat for the coming winter. It was also called Windmonath, wind-month, because the seas became too rough for fishermen to do their work.

DECEMBER

In the Roman calendar, the name came from Latin decem, ten. It was the 10th and last month of the older Roman calendar.

In Old English, we find ærra Geloa, early Yule, the first period of the pagan festival which was later borrowed and adapted by the Christian church to celebrate the birth of Jesus.

Special note This is why Christmas is sometimes still called Yuletide.

The Month of December

December is the twelfth month of the year and has 31 days. It was originally the tenth month of the Roman calendar until 153 BCE.

December Means Tenth

December is the twelfth and last month of the year in the modern day Gregorian calendar and its predecessor, the Julian calendar. The month kept its original name from the Latin word decem meaning “ten” which marked it as the tenth month of the year in the Roman calendar.

December was named during a time when the calendar year began with March, which is why its name no longer corresponds with its placement in the Julian and Gregorian calendars.

• Middle English – decembre
• Latin name – December – tenth month
• Old English – Geol-monaþ – month before yule

History of December

December was originally the last month of the old Roman calendar since the winter period was not assigned months. It originally consisted of 30 days, but its length was shortened to 29 days when the months of January and February were added around 700 BCE. During the Julian calendar reform, two days were added to December making it 31 days long.

Twelfth Month of the Year

December is the seasonal equivalent of June in the opposite hemisphere.

The month contains the winter solstice which is the shortest day of the year and marks the beginning of the winter season in the Northern Hemisphere.

December starts on the same day of the week as September every year and ends on the same day of the week as April every year.

Birth Flower and Birthstone

Its birth flower is the holly or Euphorbia pulcherrima.

The birthstone for December is the blue turquoise or zircon.

 

–timeanddate.com

The Month of November

November is the 11th month of the year and has 30 days. It was originally the 9th month of the Roman calendar until 153 BCE.

Naming November

November is the 11th month of the year in the modern day Gregorian calendar and its predecessor, the Julian calendar. The month kept its original name from the Latin novemmeaning “nine” which marked it the 9th month of the year in the Roman calendar.

November was named during a time when the calendar year began with March, which is why its name no longer corresponds with its placement in the Julian and Gregorian calendars.

• Middle English – novembre
• Latin name – novembris mensis – 9th month
• Old English – Blotmanad – Blood month

History of November

November was originally the 9th month of early versions of the Roman calendar and consisted of 30 days. It became the 11th month of the year with a length of 29 days when the months of January and Februarywere added. During the Julian calendar reform, a day was added to November making it 30 days long again.

11th Month in the Year

November is the 11th month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendar and was the 9th month in the Roman calendar. It is the seasonal equivalent of May in the opposite hemisphere.

November starts on the same day of the week as February in common years and March every year. November ends on the same day of the week as August every year.

Birth Flower and Birthstone

November’s birth flower is the chrysanthemum.

The birthstone for November is the topaz.

 

–timeanddate.com

The Month of October

October is the tenth month of the year and has 31 days. It was originally the eighth month of the Roman calendar until 153 BCE.

The Eighth Became the Tenth

October is the tenth month of the year in the modern day Gregorian calendar. It was also the tenth month in the earlier Julian calendar.

The name October is derived from octo, which means eight in Latin. It dates back more than 2000 years to the ancient Roman calendar, which was replaced by the Julian calendar in 45 BCE.

• Middle English – octobre
• Latin name – October mensis – eighth month
• Anglo Saxons – Winterfylleth – winter full moon

History of October

October always had 31 days, and it became the tenth month of the year when the months of January and February were added, pushing October towards the end of the solar year, which is around 365.24 days long.

The Julian was substituted for the Gregorian calendar because it did not reflect the length of a year on Earth accurately enough. Today’s Gregorian calendar does a much better job at keeping up with our planet’s revolutions around the Sun, but even this calendar is not perfect.

Fall and Spring Month

October is in the fall in the Northern Hemisphere, the month after the autumnal equinox. However, as seasons are opposite on either side of the equator, October is in the spring in the Southern Hemisphere. The seasonal equivalent is April in the opposite hemisphere.

The month of October starts on the same day of the week as January in common years, but during leap years, October does not start on the same day of the week as any other month. It ends on the same day of the week as February every year and January in common years only.

Calendula and Opal

October’s birth flower is the calendula. The birthstone for October is the opal and it is said that the opal will crack if worn by someone who is not born in October.

 

–timeanddate.com

The Month of September

September is the ninth month of the year in and has 30 days. It was originally the seventh month of the Roman calendar until 153 BCE.

Naming September

September is the ninth month of the year in the modern day Gregorian calendar and its predecessor, the Julian calendar. The month kept its original name from the Roman calendar in which septem means “seven” in Latin marking it as the seventh month.

September was named during a time when the calendar year began with March, which is why its name no longer corresponds with its placement in the Julian and Gregorian calendars.

• Middle English – septembre
• Latin name – september mensis – seventh month
• Anglo-Saxons – Gerst monath – Barley month

History of September

September was the seventh month and had a length of 30 days in older versions of the Roman calendar. It eventually became the ninth month with a length of 29 days after the months of January and February had been added to the calendar. Julius Caesar added one day to the month making it 30 days long during the Julian calendar reform.

Ninth Month of the Year

September is a time when many students return to school after the summer holiday in the Northern Hemisphere.

September starts on the same day of the week as December every year, but does not end on the same day of the week as any other month in the year.

Birth Flower and Birthstone

Its birth flowers are the forget-me-not, morning glory and aster.

The birthstone for September is the sapphire which means clear thinking.

 

–timeanddate.com

The Month of August

August is the eighth month of the year, has 31 days, and is named after Augustus Caesar.

August is the eighth month of the year in our modern day Gregorian calendar.

Naming August – Augustus Caesar

August is the eighth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar and its predecessor, the Julian calendar. The month of August was originally named Sextilis in Latin since it was the sixth month in the ancient Roman calendar. The name of the month was changed to August in honor of Augustus Caesar in 8 BCE.

• Latin name – Augustus mensis – Month of Augustus
• Latin – sextilis mensis – Sixth month
• Anglo-Saxons – Weod Monath – Weed month

History of August

In earlier versions of the Roman calendar, August was called Sextilis, the sixth month. It consisted of 31 days. It later became the eighth month with a length of 29 days when January and February were added to the year. Julius Caesar added two days to the month around 45 BCE. It was later renamed to honor Augustus Caesar in 8 BCE.

Eighth Month in the Year

August is the eighth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendar and is 31 days long. It is considered the busiest time for tourism because it falls in the main school summer holiday period. It is the seasonal equivalent of February in the opposite hemisphere.

August does not start on the same day of the week as any other month in the year in common years, but ends on the same day of the week as November every year. During leap years, August starts on the same day as February and still ends on same day as November.

Birth Flower and Stone

Its birth flower is the gladiolus or poppy which represents beauty, strength, love, marriage and family.

The birthstone for August is the peridot or onyx.

 

–timeanddate.com

The Month of July

July is the seventh month of the year, has 31 days, and is named after Julius Caesar.

In our modern day Gregorian calendar, July is the seventh month of the year.

Julius Caesar’s Month

July is also the seventh month of the year in the Julian calendar. The month of July was previously called Quintilis in Latin as it was the fifth month in the ancient Roman calendar. The name of the month was changed to July in honor of Julius Caesar during the Julian calendar reform.

• Middle English – Julie
• Latin name – Julius mensis – Month of Julius
• Latin – quintilis mensis – Fifth month

History of July

July was originally Quintilis, the fifth month of the year in the Roman calendar and consisted of 31 days. It was changed around 450 BCE when January became the first month of the year. Its name was changed during the Julian calendar reform in 45 BCE to honor Julius Caesar.

In modern times, July also has 31 days. It is the warmest month of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and coldest month in the Southern hemisphere.

The month of July starts on the same day of the week as April during common years and as January during leap years. July does not end on the same day of the week as any year in a common year but ends on the same day of the week as January in a leap year.

July’s Birth Flower and Stone

July’s birth flowers are the Larkspur or Water Lily.

The birthstone for July is the ruby which symbolizes contentment.

 

–timeanddate.com

The Month of June

June is the sixth month of the year, has 30 days, and is named after the Roman goddess Juno.

June is the sixth month of the year in our modern day Gregorian calendar.

Juno’s Month

June is the sixth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar and its predecessor, the Julian calendar. It is believed that the month is named after the Roman goddess Juno, who is the wife of Jupiter and is also equivalent to the Greek goddess Hera. Another belief is that the month’s name comes from the Latin work iuniores which means “younger ones”.

• Old English – Junius
• Latin name – Junius mensis – Month of Juno
• Old French – Juin

History of June

June was originally the fourth month of the year in earlier versions of the Roman calendar and consisted of 30 days. It became the fifth month with a length of 29 days following a calendar reform around 450 BCE. In the Julian calendar, June was given a length of 30 days again.

Sixth Month in the Year

June is the sixth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendar and is 30 days long. It is the month that has the most amount of daylight hours of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and shortest amount of daylight hours in the Southern hemisphere.

Many celebrations take place in the month of June, especially marriages. According to one etymology, June is named after the Roman goddess Juno who is the goddess of marriage and a married couple’s household. It is considered good luck to get married in this month.

June and May are the only two months that doesn’t start on the same day of the week as any other month. June ends on the same day of the week as March every year.

Birth Flower and Stone

June’s birth flower is the rose or the honeysuckle.

The birthstones for June are the pearl, the moonstone, and the Alexandrite which all symbolize health and longevity.

 

–timeanddate.com

The Month of May

May is the fifth month of the year, has 31 days, and is named after the Greek goddess Maia.

May is the fifth month of the year in our modern day Gregorian calendar.

Naming May – Maia’s Month

May is the fifth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar and its predecessor, the Julian calendar.  It is named after the Greek goddess, Maia who is also identified with the Roman goddess of fertility, Bona Dea.

• Old English – Maius
• Latin name – Maius mensis – Month of Maia
• Old French – Mai

History of May

May was originally the third month of the year in older versions of the Roman calendar and consisted of 31 days. It became the fifth month when the months January  and February were added to the calendar.

Fifth Month in the Year

May is the fifth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendar and consists of 31 days. It is commonly associated as a month of spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn (fall) in the Southern hemisphere. It is said that this is the month when plants really start to grow.

May does not start or end on the same day of the week as any other month.

Birth Flower and Stone

Its birth flower is the Lily of the Valley and the Crataegus monogyna.

The birthstone for May is the emerald which represents love or success.

 

–timeandday.com

The Month of April

April is the fourth month of the year, has 30 days, and is named after the Greek goddess Aphrodite.

April is the fourth month of the year in our modern day Gregorian calendar.

Naming April – Aphrodite’s Month

April is the fourth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar and its predecessor, the Julian calendar.  Its name is derived from the latin word aperit, which means to open. It is considered that April is the month of the growing season and when trees and flowers begin to “open”. It is also believed that the month’s name is named after the Greek goddess, Aphrodite (Aphros).

• Old English – April or Aprilis
• Latin name – Aprilis or Aperit – to open
• Greek – Aphro – short for Aphrodite

History of April

April was originally the second month of the year in early versions of the Roman calendar and consisted of 30 days. It became the fourth month consisting of only 29 days when January was designated the first month of the year around 450 BCE. The month became 30 days long again when Julius Caesar reformed the calendar.

Fourth Month

April is the fourth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar and consists of 30 days. It is commonly associated with the season of spring in the Northern Hemisphere and fall (autumn) in the Southern hemisphere.

April starts on the same day of the week as July and ends on the same day of the week as December in common years. During leap years, April starts on the same day of the week as January.

Birth Flower and Stone

April’s birth flower is the daisy and sweet pea.

The birthstone for April is the diamond which symbolizes innocence.

The Month of March

March is the third month of the year, has 31 days, and is named after Mars, the Roman god of war.

March is the third month of the year in our modern day Gregorian calendar. It was originally the first month of the year in the Roman calendar and named Martius.

Naming March – Mars’ Month

March is the third month of the year in both the Gregorian calendar and its predecessor, the Julian calendar.  It was named after the Roman god of war, Mars.

• Middle English – March or Marche
• Latin name – Martius mensis – Month of Mars
• Old English – Martius

History of March

March was originally the first month of the year in older versions of the Roman calendar because of its association with the first day of spring. The vernal or March equinox occurs during this month, falling on the 19th, 20th, or 21st day. March also marked a time when war would resume after the winter months.

January became the first month of the calendar year around 700 BCE. Although January 1st is New Year’s Day, many cultures and religions still celebrate the beginning of the new year in March.

Third Month in the Year

March is the third month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendar that consists of 31 days. It was the first month of the year in the 10-month Roman calendar. It is considered the seasonal equivalent of September in the opposite hemisphere.

March starts on the same day of the week as February and November and ends on the same day of the week as June in common years.

Birth Flower and Stone

March’s birth flower is the daffodil.

The birthstones for March are aquamarine and bloodstone which symbolize courage.

–timeanddate.com

The Month of February

February is the second month of the year, has 28 days in a common year, and is named after the Latin word februum.

February is the second month of the year in our modern day Gregorian calendar. It is the year’s shortest month with only 28 days in common years and 29 days in leap years.

Naming February – Februum

February is the second month of the year in the Gregorian calendar and its predecessor, the Julian Calendar, and is the only month that has less than 30 days. It was named after the Latin word februum, which means purification because the month was a time for purification.

• Middle English – Februarius
• Latin name – Februarius mensis – Month of February
• Latin – dies februatus – Day of Purification
• Old English – Solmonath – mud month

History of February

The old Roman calendar considered the winter season a monthless period, and the year consisted of only 10 months. The month of February was added, along with January, around 700 BCE, so that the calendar would reflect a standard lunar year of 355 days. February became the second month of the year around 450 BCE, although it was originally the last month of the year.

February was shortened to either 23 or 24 days at certain intervals in the Roman calendar, and a 27-day intercalary month was inserted after February to realign the year with the seasons. As part of the Julian calendar reform, the intercalary month was abolished and every fourth year was declared a leap year where a 29th day was added to February.

Second Month

February is the second month of the year in the Gregorian calendar and it’s predecessor, the Julian calendar and consists of 28 days in common years and 29 days in leap years. It did not exist in the 10-month Roman calendar. It is considered the seasonal equivalent of August in the opposite hemisphere. It is the only month that can pass without a single full moon.

February starts on the same day of the week as March and November in common years. During leap years, February starts on the same day of the week as August. Once every six years and twice every 11 years, the month of February will have only four full seven-day weeks, where the first day of the month starts on a Sunday and ends on a Saturday.

Birth Flower and Stone

February’s birth flower is the violet and the common primrose.

The birthstone for February is the amethyst which symbolizes piety, humility, spiritual wisdom and sincerity.

–timeanddate.com

The Month of January

January is the first month of the year, has 31 days, and is named after the two-faced Roman god Janus.

January’s birth flower is the Snowdrop.

January is the first month of the year in our modern day Gregorian calendar, and its predecessor the Julian calendar. It consists of 31 days and the first day of the month is known as New Year’s Day.

January Is Janus’ Month

January is named after the Roman god of doors, Janus, because this month is the door to the year. Janus represents all beginnings and possesses the ability to see all things past and future.

• Middle English – Januarie
• Latin name – Ianuarius
• French – Janvier
• Saxon – Wulf-monath – wolf month

History of January

The months of January and February did not feature in earlier versions of the Roman calendar, which divided the year into 10 months and left 61 days unaccounted for in the winter. They were added around 700 BCE.

January and February were initially the last months of the calendar year, which began in March (Martius). However, in 450 BCE, the beginning of the year was moved to January 1.

January originally consisted of 30 days when it was added to the 10-month Roman calendar. However, a day was added making it 31 days long in 46 BCE by Julius Caesar.

January Trivia

January is considered the coldest month of the year in most of the Northern Hemisphere and the warmest month of the year in most of the Southern Hemisphere.

January starts on the same day of the week as October and ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years. During leap years, January starts on the same day of the week as April and July, and ends on the same day of the week as July.

Birth Flower and Stone

January’s birth flower is the Dianthus caryophyllus or Galanthus.

The birthstone for January is the garnet which symbolizes constancy.

—timeanddate.com

December–The Tenth Month

The chief festival of this “tenth” and last month of the Roman year was the Saturnalia, held on the seventeenth of the month in honour of Saturn, the father of Jupiter. Saturn, or Cronos, as the Greeks called him, was one of the Titans, the six giant sons of Uranus (Heaven) and Gaia (Earth). Uranus ruled before the days of Man, but he was overthrown by his son Saturn, who became for a time the supreme ruler of the universe. Uranus, however, prophesied that Saturn would one day himself be overthrown by his children, and in order to avoid this, Saturn, when his first child was born, immediately swallowed him! As other children were born, he swallowed each of them until at last Rhea, his wife, succeeded in hiding her youngest son, Jupiter, and deceived Saturn by giving him a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, which, in his haste, he swallowed without realizing the trick played upon him. Jupiter was thus saved, and when he grew up he overthrew his father, as Uranus had foretold. Saturn, having lost his power, took refuge on the Earth, and became king of a part of Italy, which, as Virgil tells us in the eighth book of his Aeneid, he called Latium, since it was there that he lay hid (Latin: lateo= to lie hidden). “Saturn was the first to come from heavenly Olympus, fleeing the arms of Jupiter, an exile deprived of his kingdom. He it was who made into a nation a people untaught and scattered on the mountain tops, and gave them laws, and chose that the land should be called ‘Latium’ because in safety he had lain hidden in this region.”

Jupiter’s rule was very soon threatened by the Titans, who refused to bow to his will, but after a long and terrible struggle, the giants were overthrown by Jupiter’s thunderbolts. One of the giants was imprisoned under Mount Aetna, where, breathing out fire and smoke, he still struggles to free himself, thus causing earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Another of the Titans, Iapetus, had two sons, Prometheus (Forethought) and Epimetheus (Afterthought). To these two gods fell the task of making man, who was to rule over all living creatures. Prometheus was very anxious to give to the race of men that he had fashioned a power that would make them supreme on the earth, and nearer to the gods themselves. The way in which he could best bestow this power upon them was by the gift of fire, for fire belonged only to the gods and was jealously guarded by them. In spite of the terrible punishment which he knew awaited him should he be discovered, Prometheus determined to steal fire from heaven, and during one dark night he brought down to the earth a burning stick from the home of the gods on Mount Olympus. Jupiter, seeing an unaccustomed light on the earth, discovered the theft, and his rage knew no bounds. He seized Prometheus, carried him off to the Caucasus Mountains, and there bound him with chains to a huge rock. Then he sent a vulture that, day after day, might feed upon his liver, which grew again during the night so that the terrible torture of the god should have no end. After hundreds of years of this ghastly pain and suffering, Prometheus was rescued by Hercules, who came to him to ask him where he might find the Golden Apples of the Hesperides. Hercules killed the vulture, broke Prometheus’ chains, and released the tortured god, who in return advised Hercules to go to the giant Atlas, who knew where the apples were, as we have seen in the story of Atlas’ daughter, Maia.

Prometheus’ brother, Epimetheus, married the beautiful Pandora, and at first lived with her in great happiness, for in those early days the earth was free from pain, sickness, and ills of every kind. One evening they saw Mercury, the messenger of the gods, coming towards them and bearing on his shoulder a huge box which seemed to be of great weight. Tired out with his burden, Mercury begged permission to leave the box to their care, promising to return for it in a short time. Pandora and Epimetheus readily granted permission, and Mercury placed the box in their house and hastily departed. Pandora was at once filled with great curiosity as to what the box might contain, and suggested to Epimetheus that, they should just peep inside. Epimetheus was shocked by Pandora’s lack of good manners, and, replying that they must not think of such a thing, he went out, calling to Pandora to follow him. But Pandora’s curiosity was now thoroughly aroused, and the temptation overcame her when she found herself alone. Quickly she undid the cord which bound the box, and, thinking she beard sounds in the box, she put her ear close to the lid. To her surprise she heard voices calling, “Let us out! let us out!” Pandora, filled with excitement, slowly raised the lid a little, just for a peep, as she said to herself. But no sooner was the box opened than out flew little winged creatures, some of which settled on Pandora and Epimetheus, who had now returned, and stung them so that they knew pain for the first time. Then escaping into the world, these insects, Evil, Sickness, Unhappiness, and all the little troubles of life, became a cause of endless pain and suffering to men and women. Poor Pandora was broken hearted, and her eyes filled with tears at the thought of the harm she had done. Then again she was startled to hear a voice still calling from the box. It sounded so kind and gentle and pleaded so sweetly to be let out, that Pandora raised the lid a second time, and out flew Hope, who had been shut in with the cruel insects, and now fluttered busily over the earth, healing the wounds made by her evil companions.

This cheery little creature, Hope, may well be associated with the winter month December, when Ceres and her trees and flowers mourn for the smiling Persephone, yet cling to the hope of her return. It is Hope who bids us say with the poet, “If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?”

On December 25th, the Romans held a festival of the winter solstice, the turning point of winter, when the days begin to grow longer. It was called Dies Natalis Solis Invicti (the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun), and it is very probable that for this reason the Christians chose the 25th of December for the birthday of Christ. In early times Christmas (the Mass or Feast of Christ) was kept at different times in the year, but it was finally fixed on December 25th, since on that day there was already held this heathen festival to the sun, which had a meaning in some way similar to that of our Christmas. It was an easy thing to make the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun, which wakes all nature from its winter sleep, into the Birthday of the Unconquered Son of God, who brought new life and hope to the world.

The same thing took place among the northern races of Europe and in our own islands. The first Christian missionaries found that, at the time of year we now call Christmas, the Northmen kept a festival called Yule, the greatest feast in the year. “Yule” means “wheel”, and the festival was so named because the sun was thought to be like a wheel revolving swiftly across the sky. It used at one time to be a custom in England and Germany for the people to gather each year on a hill-top, to set fire to a huge wooden wheel bound with straw, and to send it rolling down the hill. The Christians made this festival into a Christian festival, and we still speak of Christmas as Yuletide. The origin of Santa Claus is St. Nicholas, who was the patron saint of Russia. He was famous for his kindness and generosity, and a festival was held in his honour on the 6th of December.

The custom of giving “Christmas boxes” comes from the Romans, and in later days these gifts came to be called “boxes”, because at Christmas time boxes were hung up in the churches in which people might put money, for the poor. On the day after Christmas Day these boxes were opened, and the day was thus known as “Boxing Day”. Another custom which comes from the Romans is that of having a Christmas tree hung with toys–a custom which dates back to the Saturnalia. Virgil, in his book called The Georgics, describes how the farmers, when holding a festival in honour of Bacchus, God of Wine, “hang from the tall pine tiny waving masks” of the god.

December also had two names among the Angles and Saxons: “Wintermonath”, and “Heligmonath”, that is, “holy month”, from the fact that Christmas falls in this month.

November–The Ninth Month

On the thirteenth of this “ninth” month the Romans held a feast in honour of Jupiter, the ruler of gods and men. From the clouded top of Mount Olympus he held sway over the whole world, and even the gods had to bow to his supreme will. Terrible indeed was it to anger any of the gods, but no punishment was more swift and sure than that sent by Jupiter when he was enraged. We have seen how with his thunderbolt he slew the proud and reckless Phaeton, and we have another example in the story of Bellerophon. This hero, who was staying at the court of a Grecian king, was set the task of killing the Chimaera, a terrible monster with a lion’s head, a goat’s body, a dragon’s tail, and breath of fire. While sorrowfully wondering how he could possibly perform so difficult a task, Bellerophon suddenly found before him the goddess Minerva, who asked him the cause of his trouble. As soon as she had learnt of his task she promised to help him, and, giving him a golden bridle, told him to bridle the horse Pegasus.

Now Pegasus was a winged horse which the sea-god Neptune had made from the drops of blood that fell into the sea from the head of the Gorgon Medusa, slain by Perseus. He was perfectly white and of great speed, and, as Bellerophon well knew, came down to earth to drink at a certain spring. Bellerophon waited in hiding by this spring, and taking Pegasus by surprise, jumped upon his back. The winged horse at once flew up to a great height, trying to unseat Bellerophon; but the hero succeeded in putting on Minerva’s golden bridle, when Pegasus at once became gentle. Bellerophon then set off on his task, and suddenly swooping down from the sky upon the Chimaera, overcame and killed the dreadful monster. His task accomplished, he might now have lived in happiness, but he became filled with pride because of the wonderful flights he had made on Pegasus. One day, as he soared up higher and higher, he began to think himself equal to the gods, and wished to join them on Mount Olympus. This angered Jupiter, who sent a gadfly which stung Pegasus. Suddenly rearing up, the winged horse threw the proud Bellerophon far down to the earth beneath.

The goddess, Minerva, who appeared to Bellerophon, was a daughter of Jupiter, but she was born in a very strange way, for she sprang out of her father’s head, clothed in bright armour, and with a spear in her hand. She became the Goddess of Wisdom (as we have seen in the story of Paris), of the arts and the sciences, and of spinning and weaving. Her skill in weaving is shown by the following story.

There once lived in Greece a girl named Arachne, who was so clever at needlework that at last in her pride she boasted that she could weave more skilfully than Minerva herself. Minerva, angered by these words, one day came down to Arachne’s home, and accepted the challenge which she had so rashly made. The story is thus told by the poet Spenser in “The Fate of the Butterflie”:

  “Minerva did the challenge not refuse,
But deigned with her the paragon to make;
So to their work they sit, and each doth choose
What story she will for her tapet take”.

Arachne pictured the story of Jupiter when, disguised as a white bull, he carried off Europa to the land which afterwards bore the name Europe. Minerva chose for her work the story of her own contest with the sea-god Neptune as to which of them should have the honour of naming a new city that had been built in Greece. Jupiter had said that the honour would be given to the one who gave the most useful gift to man, and he called all the gods together to judge the contest. Neptune struck the ground with his trident and there sprang forth a horse. The gods were filled with wonder at the sight of the noble animal, and when Neptune explained how useful it would be to man, they all thought that the victory would be his. Minerva then produced an olive tree; at this all the gods laughed with scorn, but when the goddess, heedless of their laughter, had explained how all its parts–the wood, the fruit, and the leaves–could be used by man, how it was the sign of peace while the horse was the symbol of war, they decided that Minerva had won, and since her name among the Greeks was Athene, she gave to the city the name of Athens.

All this the goddess wove in her tapestry:
“Then sets she forth, how with her weapon dread
She smote the ground, the which straight forth did yield
A fruitful Olive tree, with berries spread,
That all the gods admired: then all the story
She compassed with a wreath of Olives hoary.
Amongst the leaves she made a Butterfly,
With excellent device and wondrous sleight,
Flutt’ring among the Olives wantonly,
That seemed to live, so like it was in sight;
The velvet nap which on his wings doth lie,
The silken down with which his back is dight,
His broad outstretched horns, his hairy thighs,
His glorious colours, and his glistening eyes.
Which when Arachne saw, as overlaid
And mastered with workmanship so rare,
She stood astonied long, nor ought gainsaid;
And with fast-fixed eyes on her did stare,
And by her silence, sugn of one dismayed,
The victory did yield her as her share.”

Then in anger and despair, the unhappy girl hanged herself, and Minerva turned her dangling body into a spider, and bade her for ever spin and weave.

The Angles and Saxons had two names for this month of November: “Windmonath”, that is, “wind month”, and “Blodmonath”, that is, “blood month”. The latter name arose from the fact that during this month they slaughtered large numbers of cattle to last them through the cold and dreary winter.

October–The Eighth Month

In this, the “eighth” month, was held a great festival at Eleusis, a town twelve miles from Athens, in honour of the Greek goddess Demeter. The Roman name for Demeter was Ceres, and she was worshiped as the Goddess of Agriculture, since the fields and their crops were thought to be under her special care. The Greek name Demeter means “Earth Mother”, and the name Ceres has given us the word “cereals”, a general name for wheat, barley, rye, and oats.

Ceres had a daughter, Persephone, who spent a great part of her time wandering with her companions on the slopes and plains of Sicily. One day, as Persephone and her maidens were plucking flowers and weaving them into garlands, Pluto, the God of the Underworld, rode by in his dark chariot drawn by four black horses. Attracted by Persephone’s beauty, he determined to carry her off and make her his queen.

One story says that he caused a most wonderful flower to spring up, and Persephone, seeing it in the distance and wishing to gather it, was thus separated from her companions. As she stooped to pluck the flower the earth opened, and Pluto in his chariot came up from the Underworld and, seizing Persephone, carried her down to his dark and gloomy home.

Another story says that as soon as he saw Persephone he walked quickly towards her, and before she could guess his intention, caught her up and, carrying her in spite of her struggles to his chariot, drove away at topmost speed. He at length reached a river, whose roaring torrent it was impossible to cross. Afraid to turn back lest he should meet Ceres, he struck the earth such a blow with the two-pronged fork which he always carried as the emblem of his power, that the ground opened beneath him, and thus he was able to reach his dark kingdom of Hades in safety. This Hades, the Underworld to which Pluto had brought Persephone, was the home of the dead, the place to which came the spirits of those who had died, there to receive a fitting reward for their deeds on earth.

From Pluto’s throne flowed five rivers:

1. Styx (the Hateful), a sacred river, and one by which the gods “fear to swear, and not keep their oath”. It was also the river which had to be crossed by the spirits before they could reach the throne. They were ferried across by an old boatman named Charon, who charged them an obol, about ½d. of our money. It was the custom, when a man died, for his relations to put an obol under his tongue, so that he might have no difficulty in crossing the Styx. Those who came without their obol had to wait a hundred years, after which time Charon would take them across free of charge.

2. Acheron (Pain), a dark and very deep river that also had to be crossed by the spirits.

3. Lethe (Forgetfulness), which had the power of making all those who drank of its waters forget the past.

4. Phlegethon (Blazing), a river of fire which surrounded Tartarus, that part of the Underworld to which were sent the spirits of evil-doers, in order that they might suffer punishment for their wicked deeds.

5. Cocytus (Wailing), a river of salt water, the tears of those condemned to the torments of Tartarus.

In a distant part of Hades, far removed from the place of torment, were the Elysian Fields. Here dwelt the great and the good, in perpetual day, and amid the ever-blooming flowers of an eternal spring.

While the frightened Persephone was thus, against her will, made queen of this sunless kingdom of the dead, Ceres, with many tears, was seeking her daughter in the flower-strewn meadows, but all in vain. After many wanderings in Italy, and even in Greece, where she visited the city of Eleusis mentioned above, Ceres at last learnt of Persephone’s fate, but her joy at finding that she was safe was turned to grief by the thought that Pluto would never allow her to come back to the happiness of the sun-lit earth.

Meanwhile the goddess had neglected all her duties; the flowers withered away, the trees shed their leaves, the fruit was fast falling from the branches, and the crops could not ripen. The time of harvest was quickly passing, and the people, threatened with famine, and finding that their prayers to the goddess were unheeded, appealed to Jupiter to save them from starvation and death by allowing Persephone to return to the upper world. Jupiter at last consented, and said that Pluto must give up Persephone, provided that she had not eaten anything since the time when she had been carried off. Unfortunately that very day she had tasted a pomegranate which Pluto had given her, and she was compelled to stay with her husband one month for each of the six seeds she had eaten. So for six months she has to live in the Underworld, and there in the thick gloom, never pierced by a ray of sunshine, she waits for the time when she may return to the sun-kissed hills and plains of her favourite land, where, happy in her mother’s smile, she dances with her companions amid the flowers.

“Persephone to Ceres has returned
From that dark god who stole her for his bride,
And bids the Earth, that for her coming yearned,
Its sombre garb of mourning lay aside.
The sun o’ertops the clouds with wonted speed,
And so to give the goddess honour due,
O’er hill and dale, o’er mountain-side and mead,
Now scatters flowers of many a wondrous hue.
The trees that shed their leaves, each leaf a tear,
Now deck themselves again in bright array,
And Man delights to see the Winter drear
Yield place to Spring, and Night to gladsome Day.”

At length comes the time when once more Persephone must return to her desolate home, and with heavy heart she leaves the sorrowing Ceres.

“Persephone is called away,
And Ceres weeps
That she must go; while o’er the Earth
Now slowly creeps
The gloom of death; fled is that smile
Of love that made
All Nature waken into life,
And all things fade.”

The Old-English name for October was “Winterfylleth”, that is, “winter full moon”, because winter was supposed to begin at the October full moon.

September–The Seventh Month

The name of this month means simply “seventh”, and so suggests to us neither god nor hero. We find, however, that there were several festivals held in the month, and not the least important of these was one held on the second of the month, and known as the Actian Games. On this day, in the year 31 B.C., was fought the great sea battle, off Actium in Greece, in which Augustus defeated Marcus Antonius and the Egyptian queen Cleopatra. On the promontory of Actium stood a temple to Apollo, and from that time onward games in honour of Apollo were held on each anniversary of the victory. It was a common custom among the Greeks and Romans to hold games or sports in honour of a god, and the most famous of all, the Olympic Games were held every four years in Greece in honour of Zeus, the Roman Jupiter. These games lasted for five days, and consisted of foot-races, chariot-races, wrestling, boxing, throwing the quoit and the javelin. The first prize was usually a wreath made from the laurel tree, the favourite tree of Apollo. A story says that Apollo fell in love with Daphne, a beautiful wood-nymph and daughter of a river-god. Daphne, however, did not return Apollo’s love, and on one occasion ran away from him. The sun-god pursued her, calling to her that he meant no harm, but just as he was within reach of her she prayed to her father for help. She at once became rooted to the ground, and found that her limbs were rapidly changing into branches and her hair into leaves. When Apollo stretched out his hands to catch her, he found nothing in his grasp but the trunk of a tree. The river-god had changed his daughter into a laurel. From that time onward Apollo took the laurel for his favourite tree, and said that prizes given to poets and musicians–for Apollo was also god of music and poetry–should be wreaths made from the leaves of that tree. Thus the laurel wreath came to be more eagerly sought after than gold or silver.

The Olympic Games which we have mentioned are the origin of the Olympic Games which have been held in Europe and America every fourth year for some years past. They are held at the capital of each of the great countries in turn, and they were held in London at the Shepherd’s Bush Exhibition in 1908. The chief event is the Marathon Race, which in 1908 was run from Windsor to the Stadium at the Exhibition, a distance of 25 miles. This race has its origin in an historical event of the year 490 B.C. In that year was fought the great battle of Marathon between the Greeks and the invading Persians. In spite of the far greater numbers of the Persian army, the Greeks won a glorious victory. Now, in the ranks of the Greek army was a famous runner named Pheidippides, who had won many a prize in the Games. When the Persians had been put to flight, the Greek general sent for Pheidippides and bade him run with the news of the victory to Athens (the capital of Greece), distant nearly 25 miles, where all those unable to fight were awaiting anxiously the result of the battle. Pheidippides, although tired by his share in the battle, at once set off on his long journey. In time the strain of the task began to tell upon him, and it was only by a great effort that he was able to continue his course. At last, with aching limbs and faltering step, he came in sight of the city. The Athenians, seeing him in the distance, ran eagerly to meet him; falling into the arms of the foremost of them, the runner with his last breath gasped, “Rejoice, we conquer”. Even as the joyful words left his lips, Pheidippides sank lifeless in the arms that held him, and his brave spirit went forth on its last journey to meet the Heroes of the Past.

“So, when Persia was dust, all cried, ‘To Akropolis!
Run, Pheidippides, one race more! the meed is thy due!
“Athens is saved, thank Pan,” go shout!’ He flung down his shield
Ran like fire once more: and the space ‘twixt the Fennel-field
And Athens was stubble again, a field which a fire runs through,
Till in he broke: ‘Rejoice, we conquer!’ Like wine through clay,
Joy in his blood bursting his heart, he died–the bliss!”
ROBERT BROWNING–Pheidippides.

Famous among the very old stories of the Greeks is that of the swift-footed Atalanta, the daughter of the King of Arcadia. This king had longed for a son who might succeed him, and on the birth of Atalanta was filled with anger and disappointment. He ordered her to be taken away while she was still a baby, and left on a mountain top at the mercy of the wild beasts. Here she was found by some hunters, who took pity on her and carried her to their home. As she grew up, they taught her to hunt, and in time she became more skilled in running and in the chase than they all. She took part with some of the great heroes in a famous hunt for a wild boar, which she finally helped to kill. Her father, hearing of her skill, welcomed her back, and since he still had no son, urged her to marry one of the many suitors who came to the court. Atalanta, however, had no desire to marry, and knowing that she could run more swiftly than any of those who sought her hand in marriage, she declared that she would only marry the man who could outrun her. She also decreed that every one who failed to win should pay for his defeat with his life. In spite of these cruel conditions, many eager youths tried to win her, but she outran them all, and their heads were exposed on the race-course in order to frighten others who might wish to marry her.

At last there came to the court of the King of Arcadia a young man named Milanion, who was determined to win Atalanta for his wife. He had previously sought the help and protection of Venus, and in answer to his prayer the goddess had given him three golden apples. The proud Atalanta accepted Milanion’s challenge, and once again the course was thronged with people eager to see the daring youth. The signal was given, and the runners darted forward. Atalanta soon passed Milanion, who then threw at her feet one of his golden apples. She paused a moment, tempted by the glittering object, then stooping, she quickly snatched it up and raced after Milanion, who was by this time ahead of her. She soon overtook him, when he throw down a second golden apple, and again she stopped to pick it up. A third time the swift maiden passed the youth, once more to be tempted by the golden fruit. Sure of her skill, she paused to seize the third golden apple, but before she could overtake Milanion he had reached the goal. Atalanta, bound by her promise, consented to marry the victorious Milanion, and their wedding was celebrated amid great rejoicing.

The Old-English name for September was “Gerstmonath”, which means “barley month”, since during September the barley crop was usually harvested.

August–The Month of Augustus

This month is also named after a great Roman emperor, Augustus Caesar, but was first called Sextilis, the sixth month. Augustus, whose full name was Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus–Augustus (the Majestic) being a title given him after he became emperor–was a young man at the time of Caesar’s murder. Julius, who had no son of his own, adopted Augustus as his son and heir, in order that when he died Augustus should become emperor in his place. The nobles who had killed Julius, however, did not wish Augustus to become emperor, and it was not until he had fought and won many battles that he became the head of the Roman Empire. As soon as he had conquered all his enemies, he returned to Rome, and, closing the temple of Janus, proclaimed peace throughout the Empired. During his reign there lived the greatest poets and writers that Rome ever had, of whom the best known are Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Livy; just as in the rein of our Queen Elizabeth there lived some of England’s greatest poets and writers–in fact the time from Spenser and Sidney in Elizabeth’s reign, passing beyond Shakespeare to Milton in Charles II’s reign, is spoken of as the “Augustan Age” of English Literature.

The month known as Sextilis was chosen as the one to be named after Augustus, because it was during that month that the most fortunate events of his life had happened. In that month he had first become consul, the most important man in Rome; he had three times entered the city in triumph after his great victories; he had conquered Egypt and had ended the civil wars. As the month had only thirty days, and the one named after Julius Caesar had thirty-one, a day was taken from February in order to make them equal.

We have more than once mentioned the poet Virgil’s most famous work, the in which he describes the wanderings of Aeneas, who gathered together all that was left of the Trojan army and escaped from the fallen city, carrying his father Anchises on his back, since he was old and weak and unable to walk. The fugitives reached the shore in safety and sailed away from their ruined country. But the goddess Juno, not satisfied by the death of Paris and the disaster which had fallen on the Trojans, pursued Aeneas and his followers with her hatred, and again and again brought them into misfortune. They wandered from country to country for many years, seeking a spot where they might settle down in peace and safety, but Juno gave them no rest. She brought sickness upon them so that many died, and sent fierce storms which scattered their fleet and destroyed many of their ships. At last they reached a harbour on the coast of Africa, and made their way to a city which they found to be Carthage. Aeneas was welcomed by Dido, the queen of the city, who listened eagerly to the story of his adventures. Now, Aeneas had been destined by the gods to found a new kingdom, when his wanderings finally came to an end, but the time was not yet. The goddess Venus caused Dido to fall in love with Aeneas, and the hero, happy in her love and the pleasant life of her court, lingered on. A year passed, and the gods at length sent Mercury to remind Aeneas of his destiny. Aeneas’ heart sank at the thought of leaving the beautiful Dido, and afraid of her anger, he secretly set sail one dark night while the queen was sleeping. When Dido discovered her loss she was filled with grief. She ordered her servants to make a funeral pyre on which was placed an effigy of her lover, and then setting fire to the pyre with her own hand, she sprang into the flames and perished.

Aeneas and his companions sailed on till they reached the Island of Sicily, where they took refuge from a storm. During a festival which the men then held in honour of Anchises, Aeneas’ father, who had died just a year before, Juno stirred up the women to revolt against their hard life. Tired of their perilous wanderings, they gathered on the shore and set fire to the ships. Aeneas, when he heard of this new disaster, rushed down to the shore, and cried to Jupiter for help. In answer to the prayer, the King of the Gods sent a storm of rain, which put out the destroying flames. The Trojans then left Sicily, and, coming to Italy, to the mouth of the River Tiber, they followed the river until they reached the country of Latium. Here they were well received by the king, Latinus, who offered to Aeneas the hand of his daughter Lavinia. Lavinia, however, had many suitors, the chief of whom was Turnus, the prince of a neighbouring country, and Juno once again interfered by stirring up the people of Latium against Aeneas, with the result that Latinus made war on his former friend. Turnus led the army against the Trojans, and performed great deeds of valour, which were only matched by those of Aeneas. While Juno was assisting Turnus in every possible way, Venus was not forgetful of her son Aeneas, and she obtained from Vulcan, the God of Fire, a wonderful suit of armour, which enabled Aeneas to do even mightier deeds. Turnus and Aeneas at length met in single combat, and, after a fierce encounter, Turnus was killed. Peace was made with Latinus, and Aeneas married Lavinia. He founded a city, which he called Lavinia, and his descendants reigned in Latium for many years. It was one of his race, the Vestal Ilia, who marred Mars and became the mother of Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome.

One of the famous passages in the Aeneid is the description of the shield given to Aeneas by the goddess Venus. On this shield Vulcan, knowing the future, had depicted the history of the descendants of Aeneas, and had foretold the glory of Rome. He showed the wolf nursing the two sons of Mars and Ilia, the wars which followed the founding of Rome, and the brave Horatius, who defended the bridge over the Tiber against the army of Tarquin. With wonderful skill he pictured the sacred geese giving warning to the Romans of the approach of the Gauls in the dead of night. “Manlius stood before the temple and kept the lofty Capitol; a silver goose flitting through arches of gold gave warning with its cries that the Gauls were on the threshold; the Gauls were drawing near through the bushes, and were grasping the Citadel, protected by the darkness and the favour of a gloomy night. Their hair is golden and their dress of gold, their cloaks are striped, their milk-white necks are encircled with bands of gold; each brandishes in his hand two Alpine javelins, and their bodies are protected by their long shields.” In the middle of the shield Vulcan had depicted the famous sea-battle of Actium, in which the Emperor Augustus overthrew his enemies, and finally he showed the emperor seated at the entrance to the Temple of Apollo, and receiving the offerings of the conquered nations of the great Roman Empire.

The Old-English name for August was Hlaf-maesse, that is, Loaf Mass, or Loaf Feast, because during the month was held a feast of thanksgiving for the first fruits of the corn, August being the time when harvesting begins. The first day is sometimes called Lammas Day, lammas being a slightly altered form of the word hlaf-maesse.

July–The Month of Julius Caesar

This month was first called Quintilis, that is, the fifth month, which shows that the year began with March. In the year 44 B.C. the name was changed to Julius in honour of Julius Caesar, the founder of the Roman Empire. The month Quintilis was chosen as the one to be named after the Emperor Julius because his birthday was on the twelfth of that month After his death, the name Caesar became a title of the Roman Emperors, and we still have the word in the titles Kaiser of Germany, Czar (or Tsar) of Russia, and Kaisar-i-Hind (Emperor of India), one of the titles of our own king.

Julius Caesar was a very great soldier, and it was by skill as a general that he became the first emperor the Romans had. Until his time they had no supreme ruler, the chief office being that of consul. There were two consuls who had to be elected, and who only served for a certain length of time. The Romans hated the name of king, and Caesar, who seemed to have really wished for the title, was afraid to take it, in case it should turn the people against him. In 44 B.C. at the feast of the Lupercalia, held, as we have said, in February, the crown was actually offered to him by Marcus Antonius, a great Roman noble.

“You all did see that on the Lupercal
I thrice presented him a kingly crown,
Which he did thrice refuse.”
SHAKESPEARE–Julius Caesar.

Caesar made himself master of all Italy, conquered the whole of Gaul (i.e. France) and Spain, and won great victories in Greece, Egypt, and Africa. But he is famous not only as a soldier; he was a great statesman, a great orator, and a clever writer and historian. He formed several plans for the improvement of Roman life, and took a great interest in the building of public works. He reformed the calendar, as we have seen, and he wished to have the Roman law set out in a clear way, so that it could be easily understood; he had plans for draining marsh land near Rome in order to make the country more healthy, for enlarging the harbour of Ostia, a very important port near Rome, and for making a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece.

In the year 44 B.C., before he could carry out any of these very useful plans, he was killed in Rome by men who had once been his friends, but were now jealous of his power. Shakespeare describes this tragedy in his play Julius Caesar, and makes Marcus Antonius, when looking upon the murdered Caesar, say:

“Thou art the ruins of the noblest man
That ever lived in the tide of times”.

Caesar is particularly interesting to us because he came to our island in the days of the Ancient Britons. In one of his books he tells us that there were great numbers of people, many buildings, and much cattle. There were trees of every kind, as in Gaul, except the beech and the fir.

“The hare, the hen, and the goose they do not think it right to eat, but they keep them for amusement and pleasure. Most of those living inland do not sow corn, but live on milk and flesh, and are clothed in skins. All stain themselves with woad, which gives a blue colour, and makes them of more hideous appearance in battle. They have long hair, but shave every part of their body except the head and upper lip.”

At the time of Caesar’s invasion London was a stronghold of the Britons, and was very probably attacked and captured by Caesar. The first mention of London in history is in a book by a Roman historian named Tacitus, who, in describing what happened in the year A.D. 61, tells us that the Roman general leading the army here in Britain was unable to hold the town at the time of Boadicea’s revolt. London was then very largely destroyed, but the Romans rebuilt it and gave it a new name, Augusta, in honour of their Emperor Augustus. This shows that it was a place of great importance even in those early days.

The days from 3rd July to 11th August, ‘the hottest part of the year, were called by the Romans, “dog-days”, because they thought the great heat was due to Sirius, the dog-star. Sirius was a dog belonging to the giant Orion, who was a great hunter. Diana, the Goddess of the Moon, was also the Goddess of Hunting, and after she had driven her chariot with its white horses across the starlit sky, she spent the day hunting in the forests. Here she often met Orion, and soon fell in love with him. This angered her brother Apollo, the sun-god, who determined to put an end to their friendship. One day he called Diana to him, and began to talk about her skill as an archer. Pretending that he wished to test her skill, he asked her to shoot at a dark speck which could be seen floating far out at sea. Diana, all unsuspecting, at once drew her bow, and so strong and true was her aim that she hit the object, which disappeared beneath the waves. She then found that the dark speck was the head of Orion, who had been cooling himself in the sea after his hunting. She was filled with grief at his death, and vowed never to forget him, placed him and his dog Sirius in the sky. The constellation Orion can easily be found on a clear for the stars forming his belt and sword are unmistakable. Following behind the giant is the very bright star Sirius–“the scorching flames of fierce Orion’s hound”. Virgil in his Aeneid describes one of the heroes of Latium as being “as great as Orion, who, walking on foot through the deep waters of the very middle of the sea, making himself a path, yet rises above the billows with his shoulders; or carrying down an ancient ash from the summit of the mountains, has his feet on the earth, his head shrouded by the clouds of heaven”.

The Angles and Saxons had two names for this month of July: Hegmonath, the hay-month, and Maedmonath, the mead-month. A third name was sometimes given to it–the “latter mild month”, that is, the second warm month.

June–The Month of Juno

The month of June is probably named after Juno, the wife of Jupiter, and queen of the gods. It was held sacred to her, and was thought by the Romans to be the luckiest month for marriage, since Juno was the Goddess of Marriage. Wherever the goddess went she was attended by her messenger Iris (the Rainbow), who journeyed so quickly through the air that she was seldom seen, but after she had passed there was often left in the sky the radiant trail of her highly-coloured robe.

Juno is always represented as a tall, beautiful woman, wearing a crown and bearing a sceptre in her hand, and often she is shown with a peacock at her side, since that bird was sacred to her.

A story is told of one of her servants, Argus, who had a hundred eyes, only a few of which he closed at a time. Juno set him to watch over a cow which Jupiter wished to steal, for it was really a beautiful girl named Io, whom Jupiter had transformed. Mercury was sent by Jupiter to carry off Io, and by telling long and wearisome stories to Argus at last succeeded in lulling him into so deep a sleep that he closed all his eyes. The god then seized Argus’s own sword and cut off his head. Juno was very sad at the loss of her servant, and gathering up his hundred eyes scattered them over the tail of the peacock, her favourite bird.

Juno was of a very jealous disposition, and when angered brought all the misfortune she possibly could on the one who had offended her. At a wedding-feast at which the gods and goddesses were present, Eris, the Goddess of Discord, or Quarrelling, suddenly appeared. She had not been invited because of her evil nature, and in order to have her revenge, she threw on to the table a golden apple bearing the inscription, “To the fairest”. A quarrel at once arose as to whom the apple should be given, for it was claimed by Juno, the Queen of Heaven, Minerva, the Goddess of Wisdom, and Venus, the Goddess of Beauty. Being unable to decide among themselves, they determined to appoint as judge a shepherd named Paris, who was really the son of the King of Troy. The three goddesses appeared before him on a mountain top, and each in turn tried to persuade him by the promise of a great reward. Minerva offered him wisdom and knowledge, Juno offered him wealth and power, while Venus

        “drawing nigh,
Half-whispered in his ear, ‘I promise thee
The fairest and most loving wife in Greece'”.

Paris at once gave the apple to Venus, and thus angered Juno and Minerva, who determined to punish him whenever all opportunity occurred. This they were soon able to do, for Paris, prompted by Venus, carried off Helen, the most beautiful woman in all Greece, and brought her to his own city of Troy. This led to the Trojan War, which we have mentioned. The Trojans who made their escape from the city were persecuted by Juno, who brought them into many terrible dangers.

Juno, though jealous and unforgiving, gave ungrudging help to those whom she favoured, and an example of this is seen in the story of Jason and the Golden Fleece. When Jason was a child, his father Aeson, had been driven from his kingdom by his brother Pelias, and Jason, as soon as he reached manhood, determined to avenge his father. Accordingly he set out for the court of Pelias, and soon came to a stream much swollen by floods. Knowing no fear, he was about to try to ford the stream, when he saw an old woman on the bank gazing in despair at the foaming waters. He at once offered to help her by taking her on his back, and in spite of the swift stream and his heavy load, succeeded in getting safely across. He lowered the old woman gently to the ground, and was greatly annoyed to find that he had lost one of his sandals in the stream. He turned to bid farewell to the old woman, when she was suddenly transformed into the goddess Juno. Jason begged for her help and protection, which Juno at once promised, and the goddess then vanished. Jason then resumed his journey in all haste, and entering his native city, found Pelias in a temple sacrificing to the gods. He pressed forward through the crowd until he stood close to Pelias, who at length caught sight of this stranger who seemed anxious to speak to him. Fear at once filled his heart, for he remembered that it had been foretold that he should be overthrown by a man who came to him wearing only one sandal. Jason stepped forward and boldly claimed the throne for his father, and Pelias, disguising his fear and anger, invited him to his palace, where they could decide the matter. During the banquet which followed, Jason heard the story of Phrixus and Helle, two children who had escaped from their cruel stepmother on a winged ram with a golden fleece, which bore them far away from their home. As they passed over the sea, the girl Helle fell from the ram’s back into a part of the sea ever since known as the Hellespont (now the Dardanelles). Phrixus reached Colchis, at the eastern end of the Black Sea, in safety, and there sacrificed the ram to the gods and hung its golden fleece on a tree which stood in a poisonous wood and was guarded by a serpent. The cunning Pelias dared Jason to try to win the Golden Fleece, hoping that thus he would be rid of him for ever. Jason in his excitement forgot the crime which he had come to avenge, and recklessly promised to bring the fleece to Pelias. With the help of Juno, he gathered together a number of heroes, and this famous band, called the Argonauts from the name of their ship the Argo, set out for Colchis. Arriving there after many adventures, they sought the king and told him of their errand. The king, however, was unwilliiig to part with the fleece, and said that Jason must first catch two wild bulls, which breathed fire and had hoofs of brass, harness them to a plough, and make them plough a field; then he was to sow the field with serpents’ teeth, from which would spring up armed men whom he must conquer, and finally he was to kill the serpent which guarded the fleece. Jason did not lose heart when he heard these terrible conditions, but returned to his ship to think out how he might, fulfil them. On his way to the shore he met the king’s daughter Medea, who possessed magic powers. She had fallen in love with Jason, and she told him how he could perform the tasks her father had set. The next day Jason, relying on Medea’s help, faced the bulls without fear, seized them by the horns, and, after a great struggle, harnessed them to a plough. As soon as he had ploughed the field he sowed the serpents’ teeth, and when the armed men sprang up on all sides he threw his helmet amongst them. The warriors thought that they had been struck by one of their own number, with the result that they fell upon each other and fought until they all lay dead on the ground. Medea then led Jason to the tree to which the fleece was fastened, and soothing the terrible serpent by her magic, enabled Jason to cut off its head. He quickly snatched the Golden Fleece from the tree, and with Medea hastened to the shore, whence they set sail in triumph. They wandered far and suffered many misfortunes, but through Juno’s help they at last reached their native land. Jason compelled Pelias to give up the kingdom to Aeson, who was now an old man. Medea, however, in some strange way was able to restore Aeson to his youth and strength, and Pelius’ daughters, when they heard of this, asked her how they might do the same for their father. Medea, seeing her opportunity, gave them false instructions, which they followed, only to find that instead of making their father young again they had killed him.

This month of June was called by the Angles and Saxons the “dry month”, and sometimes the “earlier mild month”–July being the second mild month.